The Historical and Cultural Exploration of Southeast Asia: Layers and Development of Ancient CivilizThe Historical and Cultural Exploration of Southeast Asia: Layers and Development of Ancient Civilizations

Southeast Asia encompasses the Indochinese Peninsula and the Asian part of the Malay Archipelago. It is a crucial passage for ancient Asians traveling to Australia and a vital hub for communication between South Asia and East Asia. Ancient Chinese records contain numerous accounts of this region. However, the term "Southeast Asia" is a Western term that emerged since the 19th century, and the study of Southeast Asia as a unique whole only began after World War II.

Nevertheless, Southeast Asia is home to a multitude of ethnic groups and has "never been a region with a high degree of political unity" throughout history. So, where exactly lies the integrity of Southeast Asian history and culture? First, it is essential to clarify the relationship between history and culture. Arnold Joseph Toynbee, a British historian, once quoted Philip Bagby, stating that culture is "the formed or recurring part in history," and thus it is "the knowable aspect of history."

According to this line of thinking, merely introducing the histories of various ethnic groups and political powers in Southeast Asia is insufficient to reveal the integrity of Southeast Asian history. We must also recognize the uniqueness of Southeast Asian culture.

Admittedly, even within the academic community, it is challenging to reach a unified definition of the term "culture" when discussing it in a broad sense. The "culture" discussed here is only in the context of demonstrating history, and therefore, it is manifested within specific historical contexts.

Regarding ancient history, the development of culture exhibits distinct layers.

The most fundamental layer is represented by oral language. When a group of people can communicate verbally with each other, they share a common culture. Primitive religions and beliefs often belong to this level of culture because they fundamentally rely on oral transmission.

In a specific historical stage, cultures represented by oral language collide and merge with each other, leading to qualitative changes and promoting the development of culture to a higher level, which is usually marked by the emergence of writing systems.

Writing makes language visible, and the same writing system can transcribe different spoken languages, significantly enhancing the ability of culture to transcend time and space, from which civilization emerges. However, civilization solely carried by writing has its vulnerabilities. Since written language is only a small part of language and is often monopolized by the social elite, when the elite class that masters writing is defeated, civilization is prone to collapse. In the 2nd millennium BC, such a phenomenon occurred when the first batch of civilizations in the Old World were generally invaded by foreign ethnic groups, resulting in broader cultural collisions.

Ancient civilizations either perished or declined, while new civilizations were being nurtured, with advanced religions as their fundamental content. Advanced religions are based on the integration of civilizations, and their essence lies in the ability of individuals to establish a direct connection with the "ultimate reality," rather than basing their beliefs on social traditions monopolized by a few elites.

In the Old World, advanced religions mainly include Brahmanism-Hinduism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as various specific religious forms derived from them. The various schools of thought in ancient China during the Pre-Qin period, such as Confucianism and Taoism, also belong to the cultural level of advanced religions. Under the influence of advanced religions (and cultures at the same level), ordinary people can also attain a high spiritual realm, and civilization thus gains a foundation among the masses and is no longer fragile.

Oral language, writing systems, and advanced religions respectively represent the three layers of ancient cultural development, and the latter is generally more universal in culture than the former.

For example, Chinese characters can transcribe both Chinese and Japanese; Buddhism has Sanskrit scriptures (using the Brahmi script) and also Chinese scriptures (using Chinese characters). We can clarify the context of ancient history and culture by analyzing the combination of cultures at different levels.

In Southeast Asia, the traceable languages mainly belong to three language families: the Austronesian language family, the Austroasiatic language family, and the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is generally believed that the Austronesian language family ethnic groups entered Southeast Asia approximately 5,000-4,000 years ago and are mainly distributed in the Malay Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, and other regions today. Around 3,000 years ago, the Austroasiatic language family ethnic groups migrated to the area and are now mainly distributed in the southern part of the Indochinese Peninsula. At a relatively later time, the ancestors of the Sino-Tibetan language family moved southward from the inland. Among them, the ethnic groups of the Tibeto-Burman language group entered Southeast Asia at least around the time of the Common Era, while the ethnic groups of the Tai-Kadai language group experienced a migration peak from the 10th to the 13th century.

In the Malay Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula, the ancient ethnic groups of the Malayo-Polynesian language group within the Austronesian language family have long held a dominant position. In the Indochinese Peninsula, the ancient ethnic groups of the Mon-Khmer language group within the Austroasiatic language family first rose to prominence, but after the 10th century, the ethnic groups of the Sino-Tibetan language family gradually took the lead.

Overall, the grassroots culture (oral language) in Southeast Asia can be divided into two major regions: the Malay Archipelago (dominated by the Austronesian language family) and the Indochinese Peninsula (where the Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic language families coexist and interact). Among them, the Malay Peninsula can be regarded as a part of the Malay Archipelago in terms of culture.

Historically, Southeast Asia has not been under the stable rule of grassland pastoralists, which is similar to the situations in Western Europe and Japan.

However, unlike the latter two, Southeast Asia has also been less influenced by the culture of the Steppe Silk Road. Due to its relatively distant proximity to nomadic ethnic groups, the development of Southeast Asian civilizations has been restricted. This is because the foundation of civilization is agricultural production, and the essence of agriculture lies in the domestication of animals and plants, which does not solely refer to crop cultivation but also includes animal husbandry.

In Eurasia, the places where civilizations matured early were usually not only crop cultivation areas but also places frequently visited by nomadic people. Although rice cultivation in Southeast Asia developed relatively early, the development of civilization lagged behind that of two regions deeply influenced by nomadic culture: China and South Asia.

Regarding the development of higher-level cultures (represented by writing systems and advanced religions), ancient Southeast Asia mainly benefited from external influences, especially those from South Asia and China. Combining imported advanced religions with local grassroots cultures is the basic thread of the development of Southeast Asian civilizations.

To understand this thread, it is advisable to start with the writing systems in Southeast Asia. For ancient cultures, writing systems are, to a large extent, the link between the grassroots level of culture (represented by oral language) and the higher level (represented by advanced religions), serving as the intermediate level of culture.

Before the arrival of modern Western colonizers, there were three major types of writing systems in Southeast Asia: the Chinese character system, the Brahmi script system, and the Arabic script system.

The Chinese character system mainly developed in northern Vietnam and was used to write the Vietnamese language (which is generally considered to belong to the Mon-Khmer language group of the Austroasiatic language family, although there are different opinions). It is the result of being incorporated into the Chinese civilization circle, accompanied by Chinese high-level cultures such as Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism. The Brahmi script system developed in the vast areas outside northern Vietnam. It is the result of being incorporated into the South Asian civilization circle, accompanied by Theravada Buddhism, Vajrayana Buddhism, and Brahmanism-Hinduism originating from South Asia. Since the 14th century, a variant of the Arabic script has gradually replaced the Brahmi script and is used to write the Malay language (belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian language group of the Austronesian language family), known as the Jawi script, which mainly developed in the Malay Archipelago region (including the Malay Peninsula). This is a symbol of being incorporated into the Islamic civilization circle, accompanied by the prevalence of Islam.

The development context of the civilizations of the Chinese character system in Southeast Asia is relatively clear. Before the 10th century, present-day northern Vietnam (the area where the early Vietnamese language ethnic groups lived) was part of ancient China, and Chinese characters were commonly used. Confucianism and Buddhism were successively introduced, with Buddhism developing particularly rapidly.

In the mid-10th century, the Vietnamese language ethnic groups established an independent country and once made Buddhism the state religion. Vietnamese Buddhism was deeply influenced by the Chan School of Chinese Buddhism, which had a significant impact on the establishment of Vietnamese national culture. The Vietnamese language ethnic groups once imitated Chinese characters and created Chu Nom to write the Vietnamese language, which was closely related to the spread of Buddhism. However, later, the official status of Buddhism was replaced by Confucianism, which is somewhat similar to the situations in ancient Japan and Korea.

In fact, the historical contexts of ancient Vietnam and Korea are particularly similar. The difference is that the Korean language ethnic groups were confined to the Korean Peninsula, while the vast Indochinese Peninsula created conditions for the expansion of the Vietnamese language ethnic groups. Especially after Confucianism obtained an official status in Vietnam, the Vietnamese language ethnic groups fully demonstrated their ability to conquer other ethnic groups. The territories of Champa (whose population spoke a language belonging to the Austronesian language family) and the southern part of Angkor (whose population's language is generally considered to mainly belong to the Mon-Khmer language group of the Austroasiatic language family) were successively incorporated into Vietnam.

The context of the civilizations of the Brahmi script system in Southeast Asia is relatively complex. Let's start with the initial spread of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. The Mon people in southern Myanmar (belonging to the Mon-Khmer language group of the Austroasiatic language family) were the earliest Southeast Asian ethnic group influenced by Buddhism, and Buddhism was introduced to Myanmar around the time of the Common Era. Later, Buddhism spread in the Mon language area (present-day Myanmar and southern Thailand) and reached the area ruled by the Pyu people (whose language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language group of the Sino-Tibetan language family) (the middle reaches of the Irrawaddy River).

From the 5th to the 8th century, in the above-mentioned regions, there were both Theravada Buddhism from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and other Buddhist sects, and both Pali and Sanskrit documents could be found (both using the Brahmi script). The Mon and Pyu people also adopted the Brahmi script to write the Mon and Pyu languages, creating the Mon and Pyu scripts respectively. At the same time, Buddhism also spread to the areas where the ethnic groups of the Austronesian language family and the Khmer people (belonging to the Mon-Khmer language group of the Austroasiatic language family) were distributed (present-day Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, central and southern Vietnam, etc.), but its overall influence was still not as great as that of Brahmanism-Hinduism.

The introduction of Brahmanism-Hinduism to Southeast Asia was simultaneous with that of Buddhism, mainly based on the immigration of Brahmins. Initially, its influence exceeded that of Buddhism, mainly because Brahmanism-Hinduism was particularly suitable for the transformation of matriarchal societies into patriarchal societies in Southeast Asia.

In Southeast Asia, the matriarchal tradition is very deep, which is related to the primitive collectivism of the local rice cultivation culture. However, the closed nature of matriarchal societies conflicts with the status of Southeast Asia as a trade hub. Brahmanism-Hinduism can provide a complete system of male deities and can be coordinated with female deities. Such a religion is most capable of helping to overcome the closed nature of matriarchal societies without completely subverting the matriarchal tradition. Within the scope of Brahmanism-Hinduism, the worship of Shiva itself has the characteristics of a composite worship of male and female deities, while the worship of Vishnu is conducive to weakening the closed effect of matriarchy.

Vishnu is the god of protection, a "father" descending from the sky. He can cross tribes to maintain order, which is beneficial for the expansion of royal power. In Southeast Asia, the worship of Harihara, the combination of Shiva and Vishnu, is also prevalent. This undoubtedly emphasizes different aspects of patriarchal power. It can not only integrate with matriarchy but also transcend it. The acceptance of a complete patriarchal system by matriarchy is very conducive to the consolidation of royal power, which is the core content of Southeast Asian ethnic groups' acceptance of Brahmanism-Hinduism.

Under normal circumstances, Southeast Asian princes would hire Brahmin immigrants and their descendants to offer advice. Earlier, there were clues indicating that there might have been Southeast Asian queens marrying Brahmin immigrants and governing the country together with them. In India, Brahmanism-Hinduism generally weakened royal power, but for the small countries in Southeast Asia, the situation was the opposite.

Of course, when looking at the overall situation in Southeast Asia, the characteristic of Brahmanism-Hinduism weakening royal power is manifested. Accompanying Brahmanism-Hinduism is India's caste system, which restricts the integration of various industries, promotes the local nature of culture, and is not conducive to the establishment of a large empire.

 

 

To solve this problem, the ancient countries in Southeast Asia generally weakened the caste system when accepting Brahmanism-Hinduism. A more effective approach is to develop Mahayana Buddhism.

The bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism are saviors descending from the sky, similar to Vishnu, but they can overcome the limitations of the caste system. By promoting Mahayana Buddhism, it is easier for a "kingdom" to transform into an "empire." Moreover, Vajrayana Buddhism, which is mainly prevalent in Southeast Asia, also has obvious similarities with the worship of Shiva. It can be said that for the small countries in Southeast Asia that have accepted Brahmanism-Hinduism, accepting Vajrayana Buddhism is the top choice for further expanding royal power.

In ancient Southeast Asia, Brahmanism-Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism were the two religions with the widest reach. Both mainly used Sanskrit, and their dominance meant the dominance of Sanskrit. Ancient Malay, Javanese (belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian language group of the Austronesian language family), and Khmer were particularly influenced by Sanskrit and all adopted the Brahmi script. For the civilizations of the Brahmi script system in Southeast Asia, the combination of Brahmanism-Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism constitutes the backbone of the culture.

However, this combination did not provide the most ideal model of civilization. Mahayana Buddhism 推崇绝对的拯救者，but the saviors are after all in the minority, and most people are just the saved. If an emperor claims to be a savior, he must possess extraordinary abilities. Such abilities can be acquired but are difficult to sustain. In Southeast Asia, the empires of Mahayana Buddhism were brilliant but often very short-lived, leaving behind ruins such as Borobudur and Angkor Thom. When the empires of Mahayana Buddhism collapsed, it was still Brahmanism-Hinduism that filled the void. Thus, Southeast Asian society fluctuated between the two poles of the "large empire" and the "small kingdom."

To find a more ideal model of civilization, it is necessary to criticize the carrier of Brahmanism-Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism - Sanskrit. The pioneer of this criticism was King Anawrahta Minsaw of the Burmese people (1014-1077). He hated the Ari religion (related to Vajrayana Buddhism) that was popular around him and promoted Theravada Buddhism with Pali scriptures as its carrier.

Pali and Sanskrit both belong to the Indo-Iranian language group of the Indo-European language family and also use the Brahmi script, but there are differences in their cultural connotations. This difference ultimately manifests as the difference between Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. According to the original meaning of Buddhism, the Buddha is not a god but a person who has achieved great enlightenment. Theravada Buddhism adheres to this, while Mahayana Buddhism deviates somewhat and regards the Buddha as a savior god. In Theravada Buddhism, everyone is their own savior, and there is no distinction between the savior and the saved.

Promoting Theravada Buddhism means that all secular classes are equal in religious spirit, and the differentiation of secular hierarchies will not affect the spiritual cohesion of social members. This not only ensures social efficiency but also maintains social stability, thus making civilization tend to take shape. From the 11th to the 14th century, many political powers on the Indochinese Peninsula turned to promoting Theravada Buddhism.

However, it must be admitted that the theism of Mahayana Buddhism still has its advantages. The transcendence of a god lies in its spirituality, and spirituality comes from the hearts of animals. Emphasizing the connection of animal hearts is the essence of the bodhisattva's compassion and also makes Mahayana Buddhism more compatible with nomadic culture (which is based on the domestication of animals).

In contrast, the inspiration for the atheism of Theravada Buddhism seems to mainly come from plants. Although plants are living things, they do not have the "hearts" of animals. In the Eurasian context, nomadic culture has a very wide influence, which makes Mahayana Buddhism spread more widely than Theravada Buddhism. In a sense, it is precisely because Southeast Asia can be regarded as the region in the Eurasian context that is farthest from nomadic culture that it later became an important stronghold of Theravada Buddhism.

However, even in Southeast Asia, the areas dominated by Theravada Buddhism did not extend beyond the Indochinese Peninsula. In the Malay Archipelago and some areas on the edge of the Indochinese Peninsula, the religion that replaced Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism was not Theravada Buddhism but a religion with a strong nomadic cultural connotation: Islam.